Research
ABSTRACTS FROM PUBLISHED ARTICLES
Jordan, J. S., & Turner, B. A. (2008). The feasibility of single-item measures for organizational justice. Measurement in Physical Education and Exercise Science, 12, 237-257.
Researchers in a number of disciplines have examined the utility of single-item measures for both affective and cognitive constructs. While these authors have indicated that, under certain circumstances, the use of single-item measures is appropriate, there remains concern regarding the reliability and validity of single-item measures. This study attempts to address these concerns by comparing the reliability and validity of single-item and full-scale measures for three dimensions of organizational justice. There are an increasing number of studies in organizational behavior, as well as sport management, that have explored the importance of justice and its influence on various attitudes and behaviors. However, to date there have been no attempts to develop single-item measures for organizational justice. The development of single-item measures for organizational justice could provide researchers with practical and psychometric advantages compared with full-scale measures. Two separate methods were used to test the reliability of single-item measures, while concurrent validity was measured with a global measure of job satisfaction. Single-item measures demonstrated comparable concurrent validity, and, with one exception, the reliability estimates were all above .70.
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Jordan, J. S., Turner, B. A., Fink, J. S., & Pastore, D. L. (2008). Organizational justice as a predictor of job satisfaction: An examination of head basketball coaches. Journal for the Study of Sports and Athletes in Education, 1, 321-343.
The purpose of this study was to measure head basketball coaches’ attitudes of three dimensions of organizational justice and determine if these attitudes differed based on NCAA divisional membership or sex of the coach. Additionally, this study examined the relationship between distributive, procedural, and interactional justice and overall job satisfaction. A total of 213 head basketball coaches (men = 137, women = 76; Division I = 110, Division III = 103) participated in this study. Male basketball coaches demonstrated significantly higher scores on measures of interactional and procedural justice while no difference was found for distributive justice. There was no significant difference on scores for the three dimensions of justice based on NCAA divisional membership (I or III). Collectively, the three dimensions of organizational justice explained 28.5% of variance associated with overall job satisfaction, with interactional and distributive justice each making unique contributions. Based on the results of this study, athletic departments should consider basketball coaches’ perceptions of organizational justice when attempting to influence their attitudes of job satisfaction.
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Kwon, H. H., Turner, B. A., & Lee, C. (2008). Duration of mood maintenance in spectating sport: A losing game case. International Journal of Sport Management, 9, 273-285.
The current research investigated the length of mood maintenance in a sport context. More specifically, this study examined whether pre-game moods (i.e., positive or neutral) and personal relevance (i.e., level of team identification) influenced post-game moods and cognitive elaboration in a losing game situation. As an extension of Kwon, Lee, & Lee (2006), this study used a 20-minute long video clip based on a study by Isen, Clark, and Schwartz (1976). Using data from 186 students (male =137; female =49), results showed that the pre-game mood was maintained for 20 minutes and its effect was greater on the low personal relevance group. The effect of pre-game mood on cognitive elaboration was not modified by personal relevance. The results indicated that maintaining a positive mood among spectators was important for sport marketers since better moods can facilitate spectators’ future sport consumption (i.e., retention) and procurement of potential spectators.
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Park, M., Turner, B. A., & Pastore, D. L. (2008). Effective public service advertisements to attract volunteers for the Special Olympics: An elaboration likelihood perspective. Sport Management Review, 11, 165-192.
As many sport organizations (including the Special Olympics) are always in great need of volunteers, it is important for sport marketers with those organizations to develop effective public service advertisements (PSAs) to attract more volunteers. In order to develop more effective Public Service Advertisements (PSAs), O’Keefe and Reid (1990) stressed the importance of integrating theoretical models into public service campaigns. The purpose of this study was to expand and test a theory of persuasion for PSAs designed to lead people to help with the Special Olympics. More specifically, this study was designed to broaden the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) by incorporating a newly added personality variable, empathic tendency, into the general framework, and to show how this variable serves as a motivational factor affecting audiences’ information processing with PSAs. In order test the ELM, a three way 2 (empathy: high versus low) x 2 (argument quality: strong versus weak) x 2 (peripheral cue: celebrity versus non-celebrity status) factorial design was selected for this study. A total of 102 male and 119 female students participated in the study groups (n = 221). The results indicated that both high empathy subjects and low empathy subjects had the motivation to process the persuasive messages presented, suggesting both groups followed the central route to processing. More importantly, involvement was found to have a significant influence on the argument processing of low empathy subjects. In addition, celebrity status did not serve as a peripheral cue for this study.
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Rocha, C., & Turner, B. A. (2008). Organizational effectiveness of athletic departments and coaches’ extra-role behaviors. Journal of Issues in Intercollegiate Athletics, 1, 124-144.
The objective of the current study was to explore and describe the relationship between coaches’ extra-role behaviors (precisely organizational commitment - OC and organizational citizenship behavior - OCB) and the organizational effectiveness (OE) of their athletic departments. OC was measured through 12 items that represent its three dimensions: affective, normative, and continuance commitment (Meyer, Allen, & Smith, 1993; Turner & Chelladurai, 2005). OCB was measured using five items that represent its three dimensions: sportsmanship, civic virtue, and helping behaviors (Podsakoff & Mackenzie, 1994). Following the current tendency in the literature (Cunningham, 2002; Putler & Wolfe, 1999; Smart & Wolfe, 2000), OE of athletic departments was investigated in four dimensions: athletic achievement, student
-athletes education, social performance, and financial performance. Two hundred and forty-one coaches from NCAA Division I universities responded to the questionnaire. The results showed that coaches’ commitment and citizenship behaviors were not good predictors of effectiveness of athletic departments. Coaches’ extra-role behaviors either explained small changes in effectiveness or did not explain effectiveness at all. Implications of these findings are discussed.
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Seifried, C., Turner, B. A., Christy, K., Mahony, D. F., & Pastore, D. L. (2008). An examination of television coverage in U.S. high school athletics. ICHPER-SD Journal of Research, 3(2), 71-77.
This article discusses the positive and negative consequences of televising high school athletic events. In addition, the study sought to determine the extent and range of television coverage for each of the 51 state high school athletic associations. The researchers collected 26 responses (51.0%) to a questionnaire that addressed the television issue as a potential marketable product for high school institutions. Items on the questionnaire focused on how extensive television coverage of state association sponsored regular seasons games (e.g., High School Game of the Week) was in their respective state and whether or not their state had an agreement to broadcast championship games/events.
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Turner, B. A. (2008). Does commitment develop in the same manner for male and female coaches? An examination of personal and job characteristic antecedents. Women in Sport and Physical Activity Journal, 17(1), 15-28.
Over the years, many researchers have examined organizational commitment and how it develops. However, few have looked at differences in antecedents of commitment based on gender. Three hundred and twenty-eight athletic coaches (women = 88; men = 240) from Divisions I (n = 156) and III (n = 172) responded to a questionnaire that measured four bases of organizational commitment (affective [AC], normative [NC], continuance-high sacrifice [CC:HiSac], and continuance-low number of alternatives [CC:LoAlt]) and two specific groups of antecedents (personal characteristics and job characteristics). Differences between male and female respondents were examined to determine if their commitment developed in similar manners. The regression equation with all four job characteristic variables was significantly related to the bases of organizational commitment, cumulatively explaining 37.9% of the variance in females’ NC and 29.6% of the variance in women’s AC; for men, the job characteristic variables explained 30.0% and 24.4% for NC and AC, respectively. In addition, the regression equation with all four personal characteristic variables was significant for CC:HiSac for both male and female coaches. Overall, employer commitment was the job characteristic variable that had the greatest effect on organizational commitment for both men and women.
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Dick, R. J., & Turner, B. A. (2007). Are fans and NBA marketing directors on the same page? A comparison of value of marketing techniques. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 16, 82-92.
NBA teams use a variety of marketing techniques to try to increase game attendance. However, few research studies have compared their effectiveness. More importantly, no study to date has compared the perceptions of NBA directors of marketing and ticket holders with regard to currently used marketing techniques. Therefore, the primary purpose of this study was to determine if the marketing techniques that NBA marketing directors viewed as valuable and useful were viewed in a similar fashion by attendees at NBA games. A questionnaire containing the 20 most used marketing techniques (based on items by Dick & Sack, 2003) was completed by all NBA directors of marketing (n = 29) and by randomly selected ticket holders (n = 200) at two separate NBA games. Results of the study showed that NBA directors of marketing and ticket holders significantly disagreed on the effectiveness of 15 of the 20 marketing techniques examined, with the directors rating each of the 15 higher than the ticket holders.
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Jordan, J. S., & Turner, B. A., & Dubord, R. (2007). Organizational justice as a predictor of job satisfaction: An examination of university recreation department student employees. International Journal of Sport Management, 8, 32-54.
University recreation departments typically employ a large number of student workers who are critical about the delivery of quality services and programs. One factor that can determine whether employees are successful in the performance of work responsibilities is their degree of job satisfaction. Past research suggests that organizational justice can influence levels of employee job satisfaction. The present study measured organizational justice and job satisfaction of student employees at a university recreation department. Organizational justice accounted for 33.1% of the variance in job satisfaction, with distributive and interactional justice making unique contributions. Additionally, attitudes of organizational justice varied based on length of employment and the type of supervision the employee received.
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Pack, S., Jordan, J. S., Turner, B. A., & Haines, D. (2007). Perceived organizational support and employee satisfaction and retention. Recreational Sports Journal, 31, 95-106.
The ability of recreational sport departments to offer quality programming and services often depends on whether they are able to employ and retain quality student employees. These student employees are critical in the performance of tasks associated with the daily operations connected with recreation programs. This study examined the role of perceived organizational support (POS) on student employee attitudes. It is beneficial for university recreational sport departments, specifically directors, to be cognizant of the role POS can play in the work experience of student employees. The relationships between POS and commitment (affective, AC and normative, NC) and satisfaction were investigated for 152 student employees of a campus recreation center. No significant differences in students’ perceptions of POS were found based on gender, tenure, or type of supervision (student staff member, professional staff member, or graduate administrative assistant). However, the regression equations with POS and AC, POS and NC, and POS and satisfaction were all significant, explaining 46.2%, 39%, and 53.3% of the variance, respectively. The results of this study of the relationship between POS and commitment mirror several others from the field of industrial and organizational psychology, and it can be demonstrated that student employees reciprocate favorable treatment when they trust that their department will reward them in return. Future studies should focus on some of the particular antecedents of POS (e.g., supervisory support, participation in decision making, organizational justice, trust, and careerist orientation), as well as other possible outcomes of POS, and might provide more depth in understanding exchange relationships for student employees of recreational sports departments.
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Seifried, C., Turner, B. A., Christy, K., Mahony, D. F., & Pastore, D. L. (2007). The diverse landscape of championship and playoff site selection procedures across high school athletics. ICHPER-SD Journal of Research, 2, 37-42.
The current article discusses the remarkable differences and similarities various interscholastic athletic state governing bodies possess with regard to championship or playoff site selection procedures. This study describes the various methods involved with championship/playoff site selection through a survey of the nation’s 51 state high school athletic associations. The researchers collected a total of 26 (51.0%) questionnaires but only 24 were used in the analysis of data due to non or incomplete responses. Items on the survey instrument asked participants if their state provided a bid process for championship/playoff events, what criteria was used to select playoff sites, and if any championship contests found permanent homes.
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Turner, B. A. (2007). An examination of intercollegiate coaches’ commitment to their athletic director. International Journal of Sport Management, 8, 180-192.
While many studies in sport management research have examined organizational and occupational commitment, no study to date has looked at commitment to supervisor. The purpose of the current study was to examine intercollegiate athletic coaches’ commitment to their athletic director, and the effect of this commitment on turnover intentions and performance. From a sample of 328 NCAA Division I and III head coaches, it was determined that athletic director commitment explained 14.8% of the variance in intention to leave the organization, but was not related to performance. Implications for the finding of this study will be discussed.
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Turner, B. A., & Pack, S. (2007). Multidimensional commitment of intercollegiate student-athletes: Its effects on intention to leave and satisfaction. Journal for the Study of Sports and Athletes in Education,1(2), 141-156.
Given the importance and relative financial investments institutions formulate regarding student-athletes, intercollegiate coaches and administrators must make strategic decisions in recruiting and retaining them. An important first step in this regard is to understand the dynamics of student-athletes’ continued participation with (or intention to leave) their institution and their satisfaction. Based on Meyer and Allen’s (1991) multidimensional conceptualization of commitment, the purpose of this study was to (a) assess student-athlete commitment, (b) apply the multidimensional conceptualization of commitment to three relevant foci (i.e., coach, institution, and team), and (c) relate these components of student-athlete commitment to the student-athletes’ intention to leave their current university and satisfaction (with their coach, with their university, and with their team). In addition, differences in levels of commitment were examined based on gender, rank (i.e., upper classmen vs. under classmen), and playing status on the team (i.e., starter vs. non-starter). Student-athletes from 11 team sports from a large, Division I-A, Midwestern university were selected to participate in this study (n = 190). Results of the study showed female student-athletes were significantly higher in their levels of commitment to their university and team, while male student-athletes were significantly higher in their affective commitment to their head coach. With regard to playing status, starters were significantly higher in their commitment to their coach. Commitment was significantly related to intention to leave for all three foci examined. Of the three, commitment to team explained the most variance (17.5%) in intention to leave. All three foci of commitment were also significantly related to satisfaction, with commitment to coach explaining the most variance (68.6%). Possible explanations for these findings, along with directions for future research on student-athlete commitment will be discussed.
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Turner, B. A., & Jordan, J. S. (2006). Commitment and satisfaction of coaches: Which is more important in the retention and performance of coaches? Journal of ICHPER-SD, 43(4), 42-48.
While many researchers have investigated the commitment and satisfaction of coaches separately, few have examined the relationship between the two constructs together. Both of these variables have been linked to employee performance and retention, two important outcomes for athletic administrators. Therefore, the primary purpose of this study was to examine the role of both commitment and satisfaction in the retention and performance of intercollegiate athletic coaches. Results showed that together, satisfaction and commitment were significantly related to the turnover intentions and objective performance of intercollegiate head coaches, explaining 33.8% and 5.7% of the variance in each outcome, respectively. Most importantly, satisfaction had a greater influence on intention to leave the organization, while commitment had a greater influence on objective performance.
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Turner, B. A., Jordan, J. S., & Sagas, M. (2006). Factors affecting response rates in survey research: The case of intercollegiate coaches. Applied Research in Coaching & Athletics Annual, 21, 211-237.
A common challenge when conducting survey research is obtaining an adequate number of completed questionnaires from a chosen sample. The present study examined four factors (timing, salience, oversampling, and population characteristics) deemed to be most likely to influence response rates when utilizing the population of intercollegiate coaches. A stratified, random sample of NCAA coaches from six sports at each division level was selected (n = 2964). A total of 1096 (37.0%) questionnaires were returned. Results indicated a significant difference in response rates based on time of the season sent and sport, with football reporting the highest response rates. On average, coaches receive four requests for participation in research studies per year. Finally coaches felt that research on their profession was only somewhat important.
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Seifried, C., Turner, B. A., Christy, K., Mahony, D. F., & Pastore, D. L. (2006). Examining high school athletic rule violations: A five-year follow-up to Turner, Mahony and Pastore. Journal of Contemporary Athletics, 2(2), 175-186.
This research paper serves as a follow-up study to an investigation conducted by Turner, Mahony and Pastore (2005) on interscholastic rules violations from 1999. The primary purpose of this work was to determine if any significant changes in the types of rules violations committed surfaced and whether or not those sports engaging in illegal activities switched over the five-year period. All 51 executive directors of the state high school athletic associations were asked to participate in this study. Twenty-six returned questionnaires (51.0%) were used in the analyses. A number of interesting findings developed as a result of this study. First, similar to the original study, the respondents estimated boys’ sports committed 76.4% of all rule violations nationally. Next, from a list of violations (used in Turner et al., 2005), respondents signaled a change in frequency and types of violations between boys and girls’ sports. Finally, although the top five girl’s sports with the most rule violation remained unchanged (basketball, soccer, softball, volleyball and track and field) from the previous study, the gap between the sport with the most violations (basketball) and the sport with the 2nd most violations (soccer) virtually disappeared.
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Turner, B. A., Jordan, J. S., & DuBord, R. (2005). Retaining student workers: The importance of organizational commitment. Recreation Sports Journal, 29, 117-126.
College recreational sport departments across the United States typically depend greatly on student workers to deliver services. Because of this reliance on student workers, turnover within college recreational sports departments is very high (i.e., students are normally at the institution for a maximum of four years). One construct often examined when combating turnover is organizational commitment. Using Meyer and Allen’s (1991) conceptualization of organizational commitment, 205 student workers in a recreational department at a mid-size university responded to a questionnaire regarding their levels of commitment to the department. Four separate dimensions of organizational commitment were examined in this study: a) affective commitment (AC); b) normative commitment (NC); c) continuance commitment – high personal sacrifice (CC:HiSac); and d) continuance commitment – low number of alternatives (CC:LoAlt). Results of the study showed the longer students worked in the department, the higher their commitment levels. Also, students supervised by a professional staff member showed higher commitment levels in three of the four scales (all but CC:LoAlt). Finally, students’ levels of AC and CC:HiSac were significant determinants of their desire to maintain employment with the department.
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Daprano, C. M., Bruening, J. E., Pastore, D. L., Greenwell, T. C., Dixon, M. A., Ko, Y. J., Jordan, J. S., Lilienthal, S. J., & Turner, B. A. (2005). Collaboration in sport research: A case from the field. Quest, 57, 300-314.
Faculty members mindful of the ticking tenure and promotion clock seek ways to balance the competing and sometimes overwhelming demands of research, teaching, and service. One way to balance these demands is to find opportunities for collaboration with colleagues, especially in the area of research. There are several compelling reasons to pursue joint research projects with colleagues, however there are also difficulties inherent in the collaboration process. This article will discuss the benefits and challenges of working on collaborative research projects with colleagues from the same discipline as well as across disciplines. As members of a team actively involved in several research projects and presentations, we use our own experiences to discuss effective strategies of collaboration.
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Dixon, M. A., Cunningham, G. B., Turner, B. A., Sagas, M., & Kent, A. (2005). Challenge is key: An investigation of organizational commitment in undergraduate interns. Journal of Education for Business, 80, 172-180.
In this study, the authors investigated factors related to affective organizational commitment in undergraduate interns. They examined job challenge, supervisor support, and role stress as antecedents to commitment. Results based on a sample of senior undergraduate students (N = 71) showed that the 3 work variables explained 35% of the variance in affective organizational commitment. The authors discuss implications for educators and managers in charge of designing and implementing quality internships.
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Turner, B. A. & Chelladurai, P. (2005). Organizational and occupational commitment, intention to leave and perceived performance of intercollegiate coaches. Journal of Sport Management, 19, 193-211.
Three hundred and twenty eight intercollegiate coaches (males = 240, females = 88; Division I = 156, Division III = 172) responded to a questionnaire eliciting their commitment to university and coaching occupation, intention to leave the organization and occupation, team standings, and perceptions of their performance. Division, gender, marital/lifestyle status did not have a significant effect on commitments. Affective, normative, continuance-high sacrifice, and continuance-low alternatives commitments correlated significantly with intention to leave the organization and cumulatively explained 24.7% of the variance. Affective, normative, and continuance-low alternatives forms of commitment to occupation correlated significantly with intention to leave the occupation and cumulatively explained 24.0% of the variance. The bases of organizational commitment cumulatively explained 6.9% and 6.3% of the variance in subjective and objective performances respectively. Our results suggest that efforts to retain good coaches should include enhancing their commitment to the organization.
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Cunningham, G. B., Sagas, M., Dixon, M. A., Kent, A., & Turner, B. A. (2005). Anticipated career satisfaction, affective occupational commitment, and intentions to enter the sport management profession. Journal of Sport Management, 19, 43-57.
The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of the internship on students’ career-related outcomes. Data were gathered from 138 upper-level undergraduate sport management students (71 interns; 67 non-interns). Structural equation modeling indicated that affective occupational commitment fully mediated the relationship between anticipated career success and intentions to enter the profession. A doubly multivariate repeated measures model indicated that, while they did not differ at the beginning of the internship, interns had less positive attitudes toward the profession than did non-interns at the end of the internship. It is suggested that many internships lack pedagogical, affective, and professional value for the persons taking part in them. Recommendations concerning the field experiences of students are offered.
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Turner, B. A., Mahony, D. F., & Pastore, D. (2005). An exploratory investigation of rules violations and penalties at the high school level. International Journal of Sport Management, 6, 289-303.
While much attention has been given to rule violations and penalties at the intercollegiate level, few studies have investigated this topic at the high school level in the United States. Surveys were sent to the executive director at each of the 51 state high school athletic associations. Responses from 36 participants (70.6%) were used to examine the various rules and the types of violations that occur for both boys’ and girls’ high school sports, as well as the enforcement and penalties for these violations. While a majority of the states had similar categories of rules, there were many differences in the general areas covered. Football, basketball, and soccer were the sports with the most violations and violations were still more common in boy’s sports. The most common penalties were forfeiture of games for schools, disqualification for athletes, and reprimand for school personnel.
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Dixon, M. A., Turner, B. A., Miller, L., Harrison, T, & Pace, D. (2004). Coaches’ perceptions of rule violations in intercollegiate athletics: An empirical investigation. Journal of Contemporary Athletics, 1(3), 257-279.
The purpose of this study was to utilize empirical analysis to investigate the application of the organizational justice framework to the problem of rule violations in intercollegiate athletics. Using theoretical extensions developed from a previously conducted qualitative inquiry (i.e., Dixon, Turner, Mahony, & Pastore, 2003), the present study seeks to further generalize these findings and to propose practical solutions to reduce rule violations in intercollegiate athletics. Responses were collected from mailed questionnaires from Division I men’s and women’s basketball coaches (n=133). Results were analyzed according to gender, level, and experience of the head coach. Findings from this study suggest that a lack of financial parity is at the root of many issues regarding perceived inequities. Increasing balance in that area, combined with stiffer penalties by the NCAA and greater institutional controls may be starting points for reducing perceived inequities between schools and their resulting NCAA violations
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Dixon, M. A., Turner, B. A., Mahony, D., & Pastore, D. L. (2003). Rule violations in intercollegiate athletics: A qualitative investigation utilizing an organizational justice framework. Journal of Academic Ethics, 1, 59-90.
Although a great amount of research has documented the numerous rule violations in NCAA intercollegiate athletics, much of it has failed to combine sound theory with practical solutions. The purpose of this study was to examine the possible extensions of the organizational justice framework to the problem of rule violations in intercollegiate athletics. In doing so, the current study examined (a) perceived areas of injustice among coaches at NCAA Division I institutions, (b) avenues by which coaches resolve these injustices, and (c) potential solutions for resolving injustices in an attempt to reduce NCAA violations. Six NCAA Division I basketball coaches from various parts of the country (four from men’s teams and two from women’s teams) were interviewed using a semi-structured format. Despite the NCAA’s efforts to create parity, results showed that coaches perceived several areas of inequities in recruiting, including financial resources and academic standards. The interviewed coaches described several means that are currently used to resolve these inequities and offered recommendations for changes to eliminate injustice in the future.
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Kent, R. A. W. & Turner, B. A. (2002). Increasing response rates among coaches: The role of prenotification methods. Journal of Sport Management, 16, 209-217.
This study determined whether, in a population of intercollegiate head coaches. Prenotification had a significant influence on the return rate of mailed questionnaires. Acknowledging the growing use of e-mail and the Internet for survey distribution, the current study evaluated the effectiveness of e-mail as a prenotification technique. Response rates of Intercollegiate Head Coaches to mailed questionnaires from two separate samples were analyzed. Comparisons were made based upon the categorization of coaches into groups of prenotification by e-mail, formal letter, and a non-prenotified control group. Results indicated that prenotification of the survey recipients significantly increased response rates, with the group receiving e-mail prenotification having the highest response rate among the three groups. In addition to being cost effective for researchers, e-mail prenotification was an effective way to increase both the number and variety of contacts with survey recipients.